Khilafah al-'Alam al-Islami

 

Islamic Sultanates of Acheh & Malays

 

Acheh Sultanate

Muslim kingdom in northern Sumatra. Main center of Islamic expansion in Southeast Asia in the early seventeenth century, it declined after the Dutch seized Malacca from Portugal in 1641. (p. 541)
RELIGION: ISLAM

PREDECESSORS:

 

ACHEH, ACHIN or ATJEH, SUMATRA
The Sultanate of Achin or Atjeh was founded at the end of the 15th century. A powerful Islamic state in the 16th and 17th centuries, Achin contested control of the Malacca Straits with the Portuguese and the Dutch. The Dutch colonial power annexed the Sultanate in 1874 and local resistance stopped in 1904.

 

The above stamp is known as "Cap Sikureung" belong to the Sultanate of Acheh.



The Rise of the Muslim Sultanate Aceh Darussalam
The Sultanate of Aceh Relations with the British, 1760-1824
Finding Solutions to Aceh's Crisis
Islamic Kingdoms
Aceh
The Malay Annals
Background of Acheh’s Political History
The first Islamic Kingdom of Perlak
A History of the Malay Peninsula
Acheh & Perak
Aceh, where?
Aceh War
 
 

 

ISLAM IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

 

Muslim Sultanates in Peninsular Malaysia

Before Islam spread throughout Malaysia, Hindu and Buddhist has been introduced by the Indian traders to the Malay settlers  in Peninsula Malaysia. The indigenous Malays also embraced an ancient religion with various forms of belief with some of the population belonging to the Hindu, Buddha religion and some with the animism. Islam like its predecessor also brought by the Muslim traders who expand through trading and inter marriage.

Growing demand for eastern spices by a prosperous Renaissance Europe and the cessation from the 8th/14th century of direct Chinese trade to India brought the Gudjarati merchants into great prominence as intermediaries in the spice trade. Their great numbers in Malacca, the major emporium in the Malay- Indonesian archipelago in the 9th/15th and 10th/16th centuries, facilitated the work of Muslim missionaries in spreading the ideas of Islam in the region.   As good impression shown by the traders to the local people many of them attracted to convert to Islam.

The spread of Islam was greatly enhanced partly by social contact as a consequence of trade, but more important still, by marriages. In a few decades, the Javanese, Sumatran, Malay and other aristocracies of the coastal districts had gone over to the new faith. The common people followed in gradual stages down the social scale. Diplomatic marriages between aristocracies of different kingdoms spread the faith even further. A notable example was the marriage of the first Muslim Sultan of Pasai on the North-Western coast of Sumatra (Aceh ) who died in 1297 A.D., to  daughter of the ruler of Perlak, also on the northern coast of Sumatra. The powerful Sultanate of Malacca too, arranged many such diplomatic marriages with Borneo, Pahang and Kedah and with the Sumatran river ports of Siak, Kampar, Inderagiri and Jambi.
 

In the Malay Peninsula, the first physical evidence of the arrival of Islam was found at a spot twenty miles up the Terengganu river. There, a stone inscribed with Arabic letters has been found, dating as far back as 1386 or  probably 1326 A.D. This evidence of the existence of Islam in Malaysia's east coast perhaps initiated the theory that Islam came to Malaysia through China.

Another source of information about the beginning of the spread of Islam in the Malay Archipelago is provided by Marco Polo. He visited the port of Perlak, which he called "Felech", on the Northern coast of Sumatra in 1292 A.D. on his return voyage to Europe through the Straits of Malacca Marco Polo remarked in his later writings that many of the inhabitants of Perlak had at that time been converted to Islam by the foreign merchants who frequently called there. Pasai on the north-western coast of Sumatra whose first Muslim ruler died in 1297, five years after Marco Polo's visit to Perak, provided probably the first foothold for Islam in Sumatra.

The coming of Islam has changed the mind and perspective of the local people. They were no longer imprisoned within a religious caste system and the notion of living in "classes". In Islam there was no discrimination, or division on the basis of colour, class tribal affiliation, race, homeland and birthplace, all of which gave rise to problems. Equal rights seemed the right human solution, which in practice meant the acceptance of rights and obligation as a member of the Islamic Community. The pious person achieved sublimity and nearness to God.
 

The local population saw that Islam could save them from this bondage and provide the means for the extirpation of social evils. The new religion gave the small man a sense of this individual worth - the dignity of man - as a member of an Islamic community.

Malaysia also is not safe from any colonisation by western countries who destroy the development of Islamic teaching and social life. The first colonizer was  the Portuguese who were followed in succession by the Spanish, the Dutch and the British who took land in these places and altered all the laws and ways of living by one means or another, based on the 'divide and rule policy' so well known throughout the third world. The coming of the West could normally be considered under three categories: trade, conquest and Christianisation of the colonial subjects.

The fall of the Malacca sultanate to the Portuguese in 1511 was the beginning of colonisation on the Peninsula, that is, the breakdown of Malay political authority in this part of the world and the beginning of a setback to the spread of Islam. From Malacca the colonisers seized all administrative functions that were typically Islamic. The people had to endure a number of disturbing experiences, and to witness some of their number cooperating with the colonisers for their own personal gain.

The colonisers started to make or establishing the Religious Councils on the pretext of preserving Malay customs and the Islamic religion. In fact, their main function was to limit the role of Islam to purely personal matters. For their part the British promised they would not intervene in matters pertaining to Islam or Malay traditional practices. However, the separation of religion from the practical affairs of government and law was, in itself, an interference in matters pertaining to Islam. The ulama' whose previous function had been to advise and attend to state requirements were now replaced by a British Advisor or British Resident and the role of the ulama' became purely "religious" in the narrow sense.
 

Spread of Islam

After the initial introduction of Islam, the religion was spread by local Muslim scholars or ulama' from one district to another. Their normal practice was to open a religious training centre called "pondok" or hut from the small sleeping quarters constructed for the students. In addition to giving lectures in houses, prayer houses, or mosques, they also performed tasks such as working in paddy fields, gardening and craftwork and other jobs according to each individual's capabilities. The role of these ulama' was not merely that of a teacher but also that of advisor for the village families and communities. The role they played was fairly broad one by reason of their expertise and capability in more than one field of human activity. After graduating, the pupils would go back to their homeland, often in some remote corner of the country, forming a link in the chain between one ulama' and another.

Islam in the Malay Archipelago in general and Malaysia in particular follows the Shafie Mazhab. However there are many Muslims in Malaysia who do not follow any particular school. In Perlis, the state constitution specifies that Perlis follows the Qur'an and Sunnah and not a particular mazhab. Many Muslims in Perlis therefore do not follow any mazhab, as is the case with the followers and members of the Muhammadiyah Organisation in Indonesia.

One noteworthy feature in the religious education scene is the close relationship between the Pondok schools, the teachers and even the pupils although the distance between them may be quite considerable as from Kubang Pasir for example, or Kedah to Achen, Java, Kalimantan, Kelantan and Terengganu. The unifying factor that makes strong ties among them is the uniformity of the system of instruction, for not only are the Holy book and the language used the same but also the socio-political problems, even though in Indonesia the Dutch were the colonial power and in Malaysia (or Malaya) the British. The colonisers whether Portuguese, Dutch or British attempted Christianisation by various means, in particular through their educational systems.

There were, however, a number of Muslims who felt that the pondok schools could not deal with the challenge of colonial education institutions. In order to overcome the problems, the Madrasatul Mashoor al-Islamiyah was established in Pulau Pinang in the year 1916 using Arabic as the language of instruction. The madrasahs taught Fiqh as well as secular subjects. This institute of learning was not merely intended to enhance the position of Muslims in Penang and northern Malaya but in Southeast Asia as well. This school chose as its inspiration the name of Syed Ahmad Al Mashoor, alternatively known as Ayid Mashoor, a leader of Arab descent on that Island. After Malaya achieved independence on August 31, 1957, the growth of religious education at government subsidised schools was a result of sustained effort on the part of the Malay community. This can be seen at the Islamic College and the National University of Malaysia.

The best known and reputedly oldest pondok in Malaysia is that of Tok Guru Haji Muhammad Yusof or Tok Kenali, who constructed it himself in Kota Bahru, Kelantan. He received his basic education in Kelantan and then like any other pondok teacher pursued his studies in the Masjid al-Haram (the Great Mosque of Makkah). The Tok Kenali pondok became a famous centre of learning which led to large numbers of people from different states coming to learn at the pondok, and subsequently other pondok schools were opened by some of the former pupils who in time became community leaders. This teacher-pupil- teacher network spread to Southern Thailand and Indonesia.

Some Malaysian ulama' became teachers at the Masjid al-Haram. At the time of this writing one ulama' from Kedah, Muhammad bin Abdul Kadir, and two from Petani were teachers there. Muhammad's father was also a teacher at the al-Haram Mosque.

 

The arrival of Islam in the Region and the formation of the Muslim Sultanate of Mindanao and Sultanate of Sulu

The arrival of Islam to Mindanao and Sulu is most probably  was the result of the missionary activities of Arab traders and teachers or sufis who came along the trade  routes, and this is agreed by most of the historians . The participation of some Muslims from the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent is also admitted. This kind of spreading the Islam also occur in other Muslim Sultanate such as Malayan Peninsula, Indonesia and Borneo.

Philippines is famous with its Muslim Sultanates, they are, the Sultanate of Sulu embracing Basilan, Tawi-Tawi, Palawan and the neighbouring islands the Sultanate of  Mindanao where most of the Muslims are now living. The arrival of Islam at the Moro land was in the year 1210 AC, that is more than three centuries before the arrival of Christianity brought by Ferdinand Magellan (a Portuguese who was then working for Spain) to the region in the year 1521 AC.

But there is one piece of archaeological information that may support the theory that Islam may have arrived much earlier and that was the discovery of a tombstone on the slope of Bud Datu bearing, among other entries, the year of the death of the deceased: 710 AH, which corresponds to 1310 AC in the Gregorian calendar. The deceased was someone bearing the name of Tuhan Muqbalu or Maqbalu. The title Tuhan, said the noted Muslim scholar Cesar Adib Majul of the University of the Philippines, implied that the dead was a chief or person of high authority.

Those Muslims traders who are mostly come from Arab hace inter marriage with the local people to set the community. It can be seen  in Sulu, an Arab known locally as Tuan Mashaika was credited with having founded the first Muslim community. He married a local maiden and raised his children as Muslims. Later, in 1380, another Arab, Karimul Makhdum, reverently called Sharif Awliya, arrived and converted large number of inhabitants to Islam. Makhdum was responsible for the founding of the first mosque in the Philippines at Tubig-Indangan on Simunul Island.

The Muslims traders who are mostly come from Arab have inter marriage with the local people to set the community. It can be seen  in Sulu, an Arab known locally as Tuan Mashaika was credited with having founded the first Muslim community. He married a local maiden and raised his children as Muslims. Later, in 1380, another Arab, Karimul Makhdum, reverently called Sharif Awliya, arrived and converted large number of inhabitants to Islam. Makhdum was responsible for the founding of the first mosque in the Philippines at Tubig-Indangan on Simunul Island.

In 1390, Rajah Baguinda arrived and continued the works of Makhdum. By this time, a flourishing Muslim community in Sulu evolved and by the middle of the following century the Sulu sultanate was established. The first crowned sultan was Syed Abubakar, an Arab from South Arabia, who was said to be a direct descendant of Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him). Upon his ascension to the throne, Abubakar used the regnal name Sharif Hashim.

In Mindanao, Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuan, also claiming to be of Hashimite descent, is credited as being mostly instrumental in the propagation of the new faith in the island. He landed first at Malabang (now in Lanao del Sur) in the year 1515 and subsequently proceeded to Cotabato, where he firmly planted the seed of the new creed. Out of his marital union with the local maidens, the Maguindanao sultanate and Buayan sultanate came into existence. Later on, succeeding sultanates, though of lesser status and power, claimed lineage from him.

In Sulu, an Arab known locally as Tuan Mashaika was credited with having founded the first Muslim community. He married a local maiden and raised his children as Muslims. Later, in 1380, another Arab, Karimul Makhdum, reverently called Sharif Awliya, arrived and converted a large number of inhabitants to Islam. Makhdum was responsible for the founding of the first mosque in the Philippines at Tubig-Indangan on Simunul Island.

In 1390, Rajah Baguinda arrived and continued the works of Makhdum. By this time, a flourishing Muslim community in Sulu evolved and by the middle of the following century the Sulu sultanate was established. The first crowned sultan was Syed Abubakar, an Arab from South Arabia, who was said to be a direct descendant of Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him). Upon his ascension to the throne, Abubakar used the regnal name Sharif Hashim.

In Mindanao, Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuan, also claiming to be of Hashimite descent, is credited as being mostly instrumental in the propagation of the new faith in the island. He landed first at Malabang (now in Lanao del Sur) in the year 1515 and subsequently proceeded to Cotabato, where he firmly planted the seed of the new creed. Out of his marital union with the local maidens, the Maguindanao sultanate and Buayan sultanate came into existence. Later on, succeeding sultanates, though of lesser status and power, claimed lineage from him.It's also mentioned by local genealogies, before the coming Sharif Kabungsuan, a Muslim missionary Sharif Awliya, also from Johore, who is said to have introduced Islam to the people of Mindanao around 1460.

The conversion to Islam give the light to all settlements in this region who were animists become strong Muslims leaving worshipping the creatures. It It gave way to the uncompromising belief in one single Supreme Being called Allah, on the equality and brotherhood of the faithful, on the establishment of goodwill and prosperity to all. and revolutionized the lifestyles of the faithful in all spheres of existence. They become bravest defenders of Islam against those who trying to destroy their belief..
 
 
 
The rise of Champa Kingdom

Champa Kingdom is one of the famous kingdom in South East Asia. Not many people know about this story. The Kingdom of Champa was found in the 2nd century and lasted until the 17th century. Their land stretched along the Central coast of what is now modern Vietnam from Hoành S½n massif (Müi Ròn) in the north to Phan Thiªt (Müi Kê Gà) in the south. The people is of Malayo-Polynesian stock with indianised culture.

When Islam came, few Champa people adopted it. However, some time between 1607 and1676, in Cambodia the Cham the Malays form the majority and rise one live short independent state in Thbong Khmum province. When they strong enough  then force one of their own on the Cambodian throne, after which he married a Malay princess, became a Muslim, and changed his name to Ibrahimhe king of Champa became Muslim thus precipitating most of his people to enter Islam also.

Throughout the century, the Champa provinces were slowly annexed one by one until finally, by the 17th century they were completely absorbed by the Vietnamese. During the reign of the Vietnamese king, Minh MÕng, the Champa were severely persecuted.

In 1594 Champa was still strong enough to help the Malay state of Johor resist Portuguese attack and Champa merchants continued to frequent the ports of Southeast Asia throughout the seventeenth century. Campa's cultural life continued to the develop autonomously, and even a distinct Campa's territory was not directly absorbed until 1834-5¹, or by one account, as late as 1883 during the French conquest².

As a consequence, the last Champa Muslim king, Pô  Ch½n, decided to gather his people (those on the mainland) and migrated south to Cambodia. Whereas those on the coastline, they migrated to Terengganu (Malaysia). The area where the king and the mainlanders settled is still known to this day as Kompong Cham. They were not concentrated in one area but were scattered along the Mekong river in Vietnam, forming 13 villages along it. Throughout the years, their children were sent to Kelantan (Malaysia) to learn Qur'an and Islamic studies. Once studies were completed, these children then return home to teach others in these 13 villages. Also, another factor which helps them to preserve the true teaching of Islam was the interaction between them and the Malaysian Muslim traders who sailed through the Mekong river.

Then since 1832, when Panduranga, the last territory of Champa, was annexed by Vietnam, the people of Champa have been encountering a new situation. Their victors would like to dismantle their culture and destroy their history. In fact, the social, cultural and economical structures of Champa people still persist and quite different from those of their victors. Despite all kind of pressure, Champa people continued to preserve their cultural identity by speaking their own language, observing their own customs , wearing their traditional dress, practicing their religions. They lived in villages and social groups separately from their victors. They autonomously took care of their  internal affairs. They were reluctant to the interference of strangers (Vietnamese) who attempted to settle their liturgical problems.

Not all the Champa Muslims migrated with the king. A group stayed behind in Nha Trang, Phan Rang, Phan Rí, and Phan Thiªt provinces (Central Vietnam). With their increasing isolation with other Muslims, they began to mix Islam with Buddhism, Hindism and Bà La Môn . Hence, their descendents became lost to the true teachings of Islam. In 1959, these descendents came into contact with the Champa Muslims in Châu Яc (one of the 13 villages in South Vietnam) and also with the Muslims community in Saigon (H? Chí Minh city).

The Muslim community in Saigon, mainly consisted of Indians, Pakistanis, Malaysians, Indonesians and Arabs. (See "Who are the Vietnamese Muslims?") As a result of this interaction, the descendents who had lost Islam began to return to true Islam. Furthermore, with the help of the Muslims community in Saigon, mosques were built in Vån Lâm, An Nh½n, and Phѽc Nh½n (Central Vietnam).

Apart from the Champa Muslims, there are also two groups of Vietnamese Muslims which will be discussed in the article "Who are the Vietnamese Muslims?" After April 30th 1975, while the majority of Vietnamese Muslims remain in Vietnam under the communist regime, a sizable number of them managed to escape to other countries. The majority of them settled in America, France, Malaysia, India, Canada and a handful in Australia.
 

Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam

Brunei Darussalam is one Asia's oldest kingdoms, having been in existence for more than 1,500 years and was an imperial power from the fifteenth to the sixteenth centuries.  Its recorded history spans 600 years. Prior historical references have been found Chinese and Hindu chronicles of the sixth and seventh centuries referring to Brunei as "Polo", "Puni" and "Poli". Early writers have also called it "Brunei" and "Brune". The early king of Brunei was called Sang Aji, or Reverend Monarch, a title of Sanskrit origin. The Brunei ruling dynasty changed during the early 1360s when Awang Alak Betatar, a prince from a powerful kingdom in western Borneo, ascended the Brunei throne. He became the first Brunei ruler and the present ruler is his descendant.

Awang Alak Betatar was the first Brunei Raja to accept Islam, changing his title and name to Sultan Muhammad Shah (1363-1402) in honour of the Prophet. With Islam, Brunei asserted and expanded its role as an independent and dominant trading power in the region. Its trade and territories grew with the spread of Islam to encompass existing Malay kingdoms in Borneo and the Philippines.  

During the early spread of Islam in Brunei, many Arab Muslim missionaries married into Brunei royal family. The most notable was Sharif Ah from Taif, Arabia, who married a daughter of the second sultan, and later ascended the throne as the third Sultan in 1425. His orderly and just rule based on Islam made Brunei Darussalam a respected and powerful country. As a result with the neighbouring kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago, China and the Arabs flourished, and Brunei Darussalam entered an era of peace and tranquility. Thus the sultanate became known as Negara Brunei Darussalam (Brunei, the Abode of Peace).

Before Brunei became a Muslim Sultanate in the 14th century, Chinese accounts told of the dominance of Muslim traders in the 9th and 10th centuries. In 977, for example, the Brunei Raja (then a Hindu-Buddhist) sent three Muslim traders as Brunei's envoys to the Sung court of China, mainly to represent Brunei in Brunei-China trade. It is believed that there was a community of influential Muslims in Brunei during this period.

The royal genealogy of Brunei's sultans dates back nearly 600 years when in 1365, Awang Alak Betatar embraced Islam, married a Johore princess, and assumed the title Sultan Muhammad, according to early chronicles. A Persian missionary and direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, Sharif Ali, as Brunei's third sultan, further spread Islam, built mosques, and the first defense barriers at Kota Batu and across the Brunei river.  

Brunei rose to prominence in the 15th and 16th centuries when the country extended throughout Borneo and the whole of the present day Philippines. The first sultan to embrace Islam in Brunei was Sultan Muhammad I who reigned for 39 years in the 14th century. About the year 1478, the sultans in the region were strong enough to free themselves from the influence of Hindu rulers. The stability of the sultans that followed this period firmly rooted Islam in Brunei. In the pre Islamic Brunei the first capital Puni was established in the district of Temburong. Later the capital was moved to Kota Batu where the Brunei Museum now stands. Finally it was established in Bandar Seri Begawan during the reign of Sultan Muhyiddin I in the 17th century. In the past Brunei's wealth was founded on the export of camphor, pepper and gold.

Brunei's golden age centred round two remarkable rulers Sultan Bolkiah and Sultan Hassan. Under their rule the Royal Court developed a splendour and ritual on par with that of anywhere in the world and the territorial and religious  influence of the country reached its peak.

However, the thrust of European influence within the region in the 17th and 18th century saw a marked decline in the power and territory of Brunei a process which was hastened in the 19th century. The British influence was predominant and Brunei lost much of its territory to Sarawak under its white raja, James Brooke.  

In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate and in 1906, the British Residential system was introduced in Brunei. In 1959, Brunei resumed full internal sovereignty. Yet Britain remained responsible for defence and foreign affairs. In 1918, Sultan Muhammad Jamulul Alam, the 20th ruler and the great grandfather of the present sultan, was installed as the Yang Di Pertuan.

The year 1929 marked the historic discovery of oil in Seria during the rule of the 27th Sultan of Brunei, Ahmad Tajuddin, who ruled for 26 years from 1924-1950. Brunei History - 2 remained under the Residency Agreement until 1959, when domestic and internal rule was granted by the Constitutional Amendment of the year.

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien, the father of the present sultan became the 28th Sultan of Brunei in 1959. His rule lasted from 1950 to 1967 during which period his vision and prudence propelled Brunei towards prosperity and modernity. It was a period of transition but the Sultan was keen to maintain a separate Bruneian identity and opposed all attempts made to merge Brunei with Sarawak and North Borneo. He fought many obstacles but fought to restore Brunei to its former glory.  

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien abdicated in 1967, paving the way for his eldest son , the current sultan to ascend the throne as the 29th Sultan of Brunei  After an alliance of 96 years with Britain, His Majesty the Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah, proclaimed Brunei Darussalam a sovereign , independent , democratic Muslim monarchy on January 1st, 1984.

 
Malacca Sultanate 1400 - 1511


In the early days of the Melaka (Malacca) Sultanate, merchants used gold dust, silver bars and blocks of tin instead of coins. Ordinary people used cowry shells, rice and small scarlet weighing beans in the market

Parameswara, the first Sultan of Melaka, married a daughter of the ruler of Pasai (Acheh) in 1414 and was converted to Islam.  Many Muslims then traded in Melaka and they introduced Pasai coinage.  The first true Melaka coins so far recorded have been ascribed to the reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah.

 

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and they introduced Pasai coinage.  The first true Melaka coins so far recorded have been ascribed to the reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah.

 

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