SUDAN
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Khilafah al-'Alam al-Islami |
SUDAN
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What is now northern Sudan was in ancient times the kingdom of Nubia, which came under Egyptian rule after 2600 B.C. An Egyptian and Nubian civilization called Kush flourished until A.D. 350. Missionaries converted the region to Christianity in the 6th century, but an influx of Muslim Arabs, who had already conquered Egypt, eventually controlled the area and replaced Christianity with Islam. During the 1500s a people called the Funj conquered much of Sudan, and several other black African groups settled in the south, including the Dinka, Shilluk, Nuer, and Azande. Egyptians again conquered the Sudan in 1874, and after Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, it took over Sudan in 1898, ruling the country in conjunction with Egypt. It was known as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan between 1898 and 1955.The 20th century saw the growth of Sudanese nationalism, and in 1953 Egypt and Britain granted the Sudan self-government. Independence was proclaimed on Jan. 1, 1956. Since independence, the Sudan has been ruled by a series of unstable parliamentary governments and military regimes. Under Maj. Gen. Gaafar Mohamed Nimeiri, the Sudan instituted fundamentalist Islamic law in 1983. This exacerbated the rift between the Arab North, the seat of the government, and the black African animists and Christians in the South. Differences in language, religion, ethnicity, and political power erupted in an unending civil war between government forces, strongly influenced by the National Islamic Front (NIF), and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction is the Sudanese People's Liberation Army. Neither side has gained the upper hand, and more than an estimated 1 million people have died in battle or from famines and disease resulting from war. Human rights violations, religious persecution, and allegations that the Sudan has been a safe haven for terrorists have isolated the country from most of the international community. In 1995, the UN imposed sanctions against it.
On Aug. 20, 1998, the United States launched cruise missiles that destroyed a pharmaceutical manufacturing facility in Khartoum that allegedly manufactured chemical weapons. Sudan has close ties with Iraq, which has thwarted the UN inspections of its weapons stockpiles that are thought to include biological weapons. The U.S. contended that the wealthy Arab, Osama Bin Laden, financed the Sudanese factory.
Since 1999 international attention has been focused on evidence that slavery is widespread throughout Sudan. Arab raiders from the north of the country have enslaved thousands of southerners, who are black. The Dinka people have been the hardest hit. Some sources point out that the raids intensified in the 1980s along with the civil war between north and south. Since the early 1990s, several international human rights organizations have engaged in the controversial practice of buying back slaves from the traders. Some contend this may inadvertently encourage slavery since slave redemption has become profitable. The antislavery organizations counter that in the absence of a political solution, buying back slaves is the only hope for thousands of Sudanese.
Ever since Bashir's military coup in 1989, the de facto ruler of Sudan had been Hassan el-Turabi, a cleric and political leader who is a major figure in the pan-Arabic Islamic fundamentalist resurgence. In 1999, however, Bashir ousted Turabi and placed him under house arrest. Since then Bashir has made overtures to the West, and in Sept. 2001, the UN lifted its five-year-old sanctions. The U.S., however, still officially considers it a terrorist state.
The educational history in Sudan dates back to the early eras as proved by archaeological evidence. The educational ladder was changed in Sudan in 1991 from a (6+3+3) to (2+8+3) to include two-year pre-school stage, 8-yearbasic stage and three years secondary school stage. Following a political decree by the Higher Authority of Arabicization, Arabic language was instituted and made the official language of teaching and scientific curriculum at the governmental Higher Education Institutions.
University Of Khartoum
Director Int'l Programs
P.O. Box 321
Khartoum, Sudan
Another related University of Khartoum PageThe Ahfad University for Women
Director Int'l Programs
P.O. Box 167
Omdurman, Sudan
TEL: 249-11-553363
E-Mail: ahfad@sudanmail.netAtbara University,
Vice-Chancellor Mohamed Elhassan Sinada
P.O. Box 1843
Khartoum, SudanBayan Science and Technology College (BSTC)
PO Box 210
Khartoum 11111, Sudan
E-mail : al_bayan@hotmail.com
Tel : (249-11)473509 and 475310Bahr-Elghazal University, President Lotan Wool Wool
Waw Town, SudanEl-Gezira University, Director Int'l Programs
P.O. Box 20
Medani, SudanEl-Nelien University
P.O. Box 1055
Khartoum, SudanKhartoum American School, Director, Int'l Programs
c/o American Embassy Khartoum Dept. of State
Washington DC, 20521-2200 USAComboni College, Director, Int'l Programs
Sharie Ali Abdel Latif
Khartoum, SudanComputerman College
Sahafa Sharag
P.O. Box 10553
Khartoum, Sudan
E-mail : info@computerman.edu
Tel: (249-11)471654 Fax: (249-11)471664Omdurman Islamic University, Director Int'l Programs
P.O. Box 382
Omdurman, SudanSudan University for Science and Technology, Director, Int'l Programs
P.O. Box 407
Khartoum, SudanUniversity of Juba, Director Int'l Programs
P.O. Box 321/1
Juba, SudanAhlia University, Director Int'l Programs
P.O. Box 786
Omdurman, Sudan
TEL: 249-11-551489 / 553447Alliance Francaise, Director Int'l Programs
B.P. 95
El Fasher, SudanAlliance Francaise, Director Int'l Programs
PO Box 70
Wad Medani, SudanUnity High School
P.O. Box 85
Khartoum, Sudan
In recent years, Sudan have banned traditional commercial banking and adopted Islamic banking models. Islamic countries’ regulators also have moved to adopt common international standards for the industry, coordinated by a legal academy in Saudi Arabia.
Islamic banks are governed by reams of complex legal rulings that are known as fatwas, or interpretive applications of sayings form the Koran. Each bank has its own board of Muslim scholars to determine the suitability of banking services and investments.
Islamic banks are limited by "sharia screens", which prohibit investment in such "sin" industries as gambling or weaponry. Everything else is governed by "Sharia mirrors", or areas which are sanctioned by Islamic law, including education, food production, and biotechnology. So Islamic banks would be barred from speculating in pork bellies but not in cattle futures.
Bankers have devised numerous ways to get around the Islamic ban on earnings from interest. For instance, importers and exporters of raw materials rely on a technique that is known as murabaha, such as the one that was approved by the New York Fed, to avoid the ban on interest.
In this arrangement, a bank buys goods and sells them to a customer who then pays the bank at a future date and at a markup agreed upon by the bank and its customer.
Another form of financing is known as mudaraba, under which investors might supply capital for a project while their bank provides the project with management. The bank and investors then share any profit or loss.
A consumer who wants to finance a new car under Islamic principles might lease it or agree to make a series of payments that total more than the sticker price.
As with a loan, until the contract is fulfilled, the bank still owns the car. Just because the contract never refers to interest does not mean an Islamic bank cannot make money.
INVESTMENT IN SUDAN
Investment in Sudan has witnessed remarkable progress in terms of efficiency, performance and investment laws. Investment laws are in continuos improvement and amendment since first Investment Encouragement Act of 1956 till the new Act of 1999.
Efforts has gone far to streamline and simplify project approval and procedures and by identifying projects by providing preliminary feasibility and final feasibility studies. Free Zone areas were created in Suakin (600 square km) in the Red Sea coast, and in Khartoum North. Bonded warehouses were allowed in all parts of the country.
Eighteen Strategic reasons for investment in Sudan:
Member of COMESA (Common Market for East & South Africa) with tax reductions and preference, ACP groups, new grand Arabs free trade area under progress & LDC member with preferences in EU and world markets.
- Cheap labour.
- Availability of raw materials, land, water.
- Liberalisation of market, removing price controls, currency floating.
- Big market (ten countries neighbouring) + 29 million Sudanese.
Skilled labour, 22 universities research institutions(Agriculture, Animal Resource, Industrial Research & Consultant food research centre, health research & training ... etc.)Continental Climate.
Economy—overview: Sudan is the largest country in Africa, with an area of 2.5 million sq. km. Over 50 % of its total area constitute agricultural land; thus, the country is very rich in agricultural resources. The total population was estimated to be about 26 million in 1995, giving a geographic population density of 10 personper sq. km. The population of Sudan grows at an annual rate of 2.9%. Over three-quarters of the population are concentrated in the north of Sudan, mostly in the rural areas.
In 1996, the value of GIDP in Sudan amounted to 10.2 billion Sudanese Pounds and registered an annual rate of growth of 4.7%.
Typical to most developing countries, Sudan is basically dependent upon agriculture. Accordingly, the agricultural sector employs the bulk of the labor force. In 1996, agriculture contributed about 45% of the GDR The structure of the agricultural sector is mainly composed of the following subsectors: agricultural crops (51%), livestock (38%) and forestry (10%). Agriculture in Sudan is also subdivided into irrigated and rain-fed production as well as modern and traditional systems.
The contribution of industry to economic activity is very insignificant, only about 13% of the GIDP on average and employs less than 10% of the labor force. The industrial sector in Sudan is essentially composed of light consumer goods industries. Its structure is mainly formed of the following: manufacturing and handicrafts (50%), building and construction (30%), electricity and water (15%) and mining (5%).
The contribution of services to the GDP in the Sudan amounts to about 40% on average. The services sector includes the following major sub-sectors: Commerce, restaurants and hotels, finance and insurance, real estate and business services, transport and communication and government services.
The bulk of Sudanese exports (90%) originate from the agricultural sector. The major export commodities include cotton, Gum Arabic, oil seeds and livestock. The bulk of Sudan's exports are directed towards the European Union and the Arab countries.
The economic system in Sudan is moving towards the free market model. This is a consequence of the Government's policies of deregulation and privatisation.
Banks
Al Shamal Islamic Bank
Bank of Khartoum
Omdurman National Bank
El Nileen Industrial Development Bank
Al Baraka Investment and Development
Tadamon Islamic Bank
Sudanese French Bank
Sudan Financial Investment Bank
Isalamic development bank
Alshimal Islamic Bank
The legal system is based on English common law and Islamic law. Sudan came under Egyptian-Ottoman rule from the time of the Egyptian defeat of the Funj Kingdom in 1822. After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, European interest in the region increased; British General Charles Gordon appointed a governor of Egyptian Sudan in 1873. The Mahdist revolt led by Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi in 1880 led to the capture of Khartoum from the Egyptians in 1885. The British re-established control over the region in 1898 under General Horatio Kitchener. The British and Egyptians shared sovereignty during the Condominium period from 1899. An agreement to allow for a three-year transition period to independence in 1953 led to self-rule in 1956.
Civil war between the North and South continues to plague Sudan. Three extended periods of military rule have been punctuated by briefer periods of multi-party parliamentary rule. The last elected government was suspended after a military coup on 30th June 1989. Sadiq al-Mahdi was overthrown by the military and an Islamist coalition led by Lt. Gen. Umar al-Bashir and Dr. Hasan al-Turabi and martial law was imposed. From 20th January 1991, the Revolutionary Command Council imposed Islamic law on all residents of northern states regardless of religion.
On 1 July 1998, a new constitution came into force following a referendum the previous month. Lt. Gen. al-Bashir became President and Dr. al-Turabi became Speaker of the Parliament. On 12th December 1999, President al-Bashir dissolved Parliament and declared a state of emergency. In April 2000, the state of emergency was extended through the end of 2000.
Sources of law are Islamic law, consensus of the population, the constitutional, and custom. In family law, judicial circulars (manshurat) issued by Qadi al-Quda (first issued in 1916) served to institute reforms or instruct application of particular interpretations. Family Code passed in 1991, codifying shari'a principles and interpretations of some manshurat and abolishing others. Section 5 of Code indicates Hanafi fiqh as residual source of law; Supreme Court (Shari'a Circuit) vested with power to issue interpretations of Code. Sources of law are Islamic law, constitutional law, legislation, judicial precedent, and custom. In family law, judicial circulars (manshurat) issued by the Qadi al-Quda (first issued in 1916) served to institute reforms or instruct the application of particular interpretations. The Family Code passed in 1991, codified shari'a principles and interpretations of some of the manshurat and abolished others. Section 5 of the Code indicates Hanafi fiqh as a residual source of law; the Supreme Court (Shari'a Circuit) is vested with power to issue interpretations of the Code.
Schools of Fiqh: The Maliki school was the predominant madhhab in Sudan, although the dominant school is now the Hanafi, due to Egyptian and Ottoman influence.
Constitutional Status of Islam(ic Law): The constitution came into force on 1 July 1998, after being approved in a referendum the previous month; Art. 1 states that Islam is the religion of the majority of the population, but does not proclaim it to be the state religion; Art. 65 identifies the sources of law as shari’a, the consensus of the people, the constitution, and custom. Prior to the enactment of the constitution, Sudan had largely been governed through a series of "constitutional decrees." Art. 137 repealed all of the constitutional decrees except Constitutional Decree No. 14, which provides for implementation of the 21 April 1997 Peace Accord.
Court System: The court system consists of a Constitutional Court, a High Court, Court of Appeals and courts of first instance. During the Islamisation campaign of 1983, the government reunified civil and shari'a courts, which had been divided during the colonial period. There is nothing in the new constitution to suggest that there has been a change in the treatment of shari'a in the courts.
Notable Features: The Muslim Personal Law Act 1991 requires that both parties to a marriage be past the age of puberty and be willingly consenting to the marriage. The male guardian marries adult women with their consent, although the qadi is empowered to act in this capacity if her guardian refuses his consent without justification. The guardian retains entitlement to seek dissolution on the grounds of lack of kifa'a of the husband, defined as kifa'a in religion and morals.
Classical rules apply to regulate polygamy. Provision is made for stipulations be inserted in the marriage contract. The wife is entitled to maintenance, assessed according to the circumstances of the husband; arrears can be claimed for up to three years preceding the date of submission of the claim at court. The wife loses the right to maintenance if she refuses to move to the marital home or leaves it without a shari'a justification, including if she works outside the house without her husband's consent, provided he is not being arbitrary in his prohibition on her working. The wife is required to obey the husband in accordance with the classical rules, but a ruling for obedience cannot be forcibly executed.
Reforms standard to the region to the rules on talaq have been introduced, affecting the validity of talaq accompanied by a number in word or sign, talaq in the form of an oath, talaq intended to induce someone to do something. In a further reform to classical law, the wife must be informed of the husband's revocation of a revocable talaq during her 'idda period in order for the revocation to be valid.
The wife may seek judicial divorce on the grounds of the husband's incurable physical or mental illness rendering it impossible for the wife to continue to live with him without harm; the husband's impotence not curable within one year; the husband's cruelty, or discord between the spouses; the husband's inability to pay maintenance; and divorce by 'ransom' where a wife held disobedient by the court may waive her rights in return for a divorce and if the husband refuses to agree, arbitrators must be appointed and if the wife establishes that she suffers from remaining with him, a talaq will be ordered by the court.
After divorce the wife is entitled to maintenance for the `idda period and to mut`a to be assessed according to the means of her ex-husband to a maximum of six months' maintenance. This is unless the divorce was a judicial divorce by reason of the man's poverty and inability to pay maintenance or for some physical reason arising in the wife, or unless the divorce was by khul`.
A divorced mother is entitled to custody of her male children till they are 7 years old and females till they are 9; the court may extend these period if it is proven to be in the interests of the wards, until the sons reach puberty and the daughters consummate marriage. The father or other male guardian is to maintain scrutiny of all matters related to the raising of the children in the custody of their mother. The court has certain discretion to allow a woman who marries a man not a mahram to retain custody if the interests of the ward so require. The custody of a woman of a different religion to the father ends when the child is 5 or earlier if there are fears for their faith being affected. Child support is the responsibility of the father until the daughter is married and the son is of an age when he is able to earn his own living.
In a reform to the law of succession, the radd has been extended to include the spouse relict after the fractional heirs and the succession of cognate relatives.
Constitution of the Republic of Sudan
1. U.S. Committee for Refugees: Sudan - country reports, bombing chronologies, photo galleries, audio clips, testimonies, and more.
2. Sudan Foundation - to improve awareness and understanding between the peoples of the United Kingdom and the Sudan.
3. Committee on Conscience Genocide Warning: Sudan - background, fact and figures, interview, and other information about the civil war.
4. ArabNet: Sudan History - discusses Egyptian, Roman, and Christian influence; the Ottomans and Islam; European dominance and the Mahdist movement; Anglo-Egyptian sovereignty; and the civil wars.
5. United States: Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan in Washington, D.C.
6. Sudan- Miftah Shamali - travel and information guide.
7. U.S. Library of Congress Country Study: Sudan - overview of history, geography, population, government, economy, and more.
8. Sudan Ministry of Foreign Affairs
9. Miftah Shamali: Sudan - features several points of interest and other information for visitors.
10. Sudan Special Weapons Guide - from the Federation of American Scientists. Examines the Sudan's reported nuclear, chemical, and missile capabilities.
11. World Factbook: Sudan - country profile.
12. Sudan Page - features online resources related to Sudan.
13. Sudan Net - about Sudanese culture, news, and more.
14. ArabNet: Sudan - includes sections on the country's history, geography, culture, and government.
15. Sudan.net - comprehensive site with information on Sudan, the latest news, and links related to Sudan.
16. South Sudan OnLine Project - unpublished maps, links, and bibliographies on relief camps in South Sudan.
17. Community Aid Abroad: Sudan - collection of articles and links that highlight development and the human rights situation in the country.
18. Internet Foundation: Sudan Genocide - links to articles, reports, analysis, and other resources.
19. Raceandhistory.com: Nuba People of Sudan - profile of the people. Contains links to other reports and documents.
20. Sudanese Online - includes news, culture, links, and more.
21. Sudanese Literature, Music, Culture & Education - information and links to Sudanese music, society, literature, and language.
22. Sudan's Man-Made Famine - it received international attention in the early 1980s. The civil war and famine persist.
23. Bulgaria: Sudan Consulate General in Sofia
24. France: Embassy of Sudan in Paris
25. Kingdoms of the Medieval Sudan - historical overview of Mali, Songhay, Kanem-Bornu, and Hausaland before the modern era.
26. Sudan University of Science and Technology - includes student services, courses search, current activities, and more. Also in Arabic.
27. Sudan Home - featuring a history, government information, and photos.
http://sudanhome.com/home.html28. About Sudan - cover economy, people, defense, transportation, and more.
http://www.theodora.com/wfb/sudan/sudan2.html29. United Methodist Committee on Relief: Sudan - learn about famine relief and development projects.
30. Sudan Studies Society of the United Kingdom - encouraging Sudanese studies in all disciplines and levels.
31. Sudan Site - history, geography, and more.
32. Romania: Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan in Bucharest
33. Slavery and Slavery Redemption in the Sudan - Human Rights Watch background paper.
34. Ancient Sudan: Kingdom of Kush at Meroë - photos of the Meroitic necropolis and temple complex or Great Enclosure, artifacts, sculpture, monuments, and more dating from 4th century B.C. to 325 A.D.
35. Canada: Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan, Ottawa
36. Sudan 101: People Groups - information on distinct people groups or tribes.
37. Community Aid Abroad: Sudan - collection of articles and links that highlight development and the human rights situation in the country.
38. Sudan 101 - offers information on Sudan's current issues, history, government, and indigenous peoples.
39. The Country & People of Sudan - selected sites about business, culture, education, history, media, and more.
40. DangerFinder: Sudan - political analysis, transportation and medical tips, dangerous places and dates, and other info.
41. Sudan Maps - features administrative, travel, and overview maps.
42. Sudan
43. Media Monitors Network: The Reality of Slave Redemption in Sudan - article criticizing the programs of buying back slaves in order to free them.
44. Prolonged Wars: The War in Sudan (PDF) - research paper discussing the background, groups involved, foreign relationships, military operations, and obstacles to a peaceful resolution of the civil war.
45. Sudan Update: Significant People and Organisations - profile of the various parties.
46. Sudan Foundation: Anglo-Sudanese Relations Time for Closer Links? - by Sean Gabb.
47. Bishop Gassis Sudan Relief Fund - poviding food, clothing, shelter, medical attention, and the Gospel to the people of Sudan.
48. Foreign Policy In Focus: Sudan - history, political groups, foreign influence, and evaluation of the country's prospects.
49. Sudan Human Rights Association - Quarterly Newsletter - ensuring that the rights of the Sudanese people, refugees, displaced persons, and prisoners of war are protected.
50. Sudan's Pyramid Secret - article from the Middle East Times describing the tombs of the ancient kings and queens of Meroe, found 200 km northeast of the capital Khartoum.
52. Bayan Science and Technology College - a private technological school in Khartoum.
53. Internet Foundation: Sudan Genocide - links to articles, reports, analysis, and other resources.
54. Raceandhistory.com: Nuba People of Sudan - profile of the people. Contains links to other reports and documents.
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